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100 - академік М. Марр, 80 - видатний археолог Генріх Шліман, понад 60 - український науковець і письменник Агатангел Кримський. Знання іноземних мов здавна вважалося за невід'ємну ознаку духовної культури. Київський князь Володимир Мономах писав у своєму «Поученні»: «Що знаєте доброго, того не забувайте, а чого не знаєте, того навчайтесь - як батько мій, перебуваючи вдома, знав п'ять мов, від того бо честь в інших країнах». Кількома іноземними мовами володіли видатний полководець і державний діяч України Богдан Хмельницький і гетьман Іван Виговський. Чимало поліґлотів (від грецького «полі» - багато, глотта» - мова) є і в наш час. У Римському університеті працює професор Карло Тальїавіні, який досконало володіє 35 мовами, викладає 25-ма, а всього знає їх понад 120. «Батько» кібернетики Норберт Вінер вивчив 13 мов, професор Тартуського університету Пауль Арісте та викладач Московського Андрій Залізняк, родом з Чернігівщини, знають десь по 40 мов. До двох десятків знав їх український письменник-перекладач Микола Лукаш. Він автор чудових перекладів «Фауста» Ґете, «Декамерона» Боккаччо, «Дон Кіхота» Сервантеса та інших шедеврів світової літератури. Поліглоти визнають, що процес вивчення іноземних мов дуже складний, і в кожного з них свої власні методи. UNITS OF INTERNATIONAL LEXICON AND WAYS OF RENDERING THEIR MEANING AND LINGUAL FORM By internationalisms are meant such language units which are borrowed from one and the same source language by at least three genealogically different languages in the same or similar lingual form and identical meaning (cf. долар, атом, інтерес, директор, база, стадіон, театр, фізика, etc.). International, however, may be not only words and phrases/word-groups, but also morphemes - prefixes, suffixes and even inflexions, nothing to say about root morphemes as the English or Ukrainian words fund фонд, gas ґаз, lord лорд, ohm ом, park парк, pound фунт, smog смоґ and many others. These morphemes are conveyed with the help of the translator's transcription (i.e. either transliterated or transcribed) sometimes, through, the combination of boh these methods may be and is employed. Among the most often occurring international affixes in English 128 and Ukrainian are the following:
The lexicon of each developed language comprises a very large layer of foreign by origin words, word-groups/phrases and even a small number of sentences. These lexical and syntactic level units have been acquired by the borrowing languages to designate notions hitherto unknown in them. The bulk of these borrowed morphemes, lexemes and syntaxymes are found in many languages of a culturally, historically, and often geographically common area as Europe, the Middle East or the Far East. They are used to designate notions belonging to different domains of human knowledge or activity. Hence, there is distinguished: a) the social and political terminology comprising the most commonly used political, economic, philosophical, historical, sociological units of lexicon (audit, bank, constitution, parliament, party, president, barter, sophism, etc.). Here also belong terms designating international law, diplomacy, numerous literary terms (cf. drama, poet, metaphor, epithet, hyperbole, etc.); b) natural history/sciences terminology (physics, mathematics, genetics, chemistry) used not only in special but also in scientific and popular works and in mass media (chemical/physical reaction, genes, pneumonia, etc.); c) numerous technical terms (names of machines and their parts: motor, carter, starter, accelerator, battery), as well as names of different means of transport (bus, metro, taxi) and communication (fax, telegraph, telex, radio, e-mail), etc. These and other words and phrases of the kind are referred to as internationalisms, or more precisely genuine internationalisms. The latter never considerably change their lingual (orthographic or sounding) form nor their internationally established meaning. (Cf.: motor мотор, audit аудит, therapeutic терапевтичний). The main characteristic feature of genuine internationalisms, whether single words or words-combinations, is their semantic singularity. It means that their lexical identity and orthographic similarity 129 in the source language and in all target languages remains unchanged both at language level (when taken separate) and at speech level, i.e., when used in texts/speech. Apart from many thousands of genuine international words and word-combinations, which retain in several languages an identical or similar lingual form and identical meaning, there exists one more group of international lexis called translation loan units of lexicon. These have also a generally common structural form (of word, word-combination) but rarely a similarity in their orthographic form or sounding. Loan internationalisms are mostly different terms designating scientific and technological notions, in the main: brake гальмо, citric add лимонна кислота', lead oxide окис свинцю; specific gravity питома вага; surplus value додана вартість; nonconducting непровідність; agreement узгодження; government керування, juxtaposition прилягання (gram.), etc. Along with these two groups of word internationalisms there also exist many stable international phraseological/idiomatic expressions in each language's lexicon. Their fund is constituted by the so-called absolute and near equivalents having a common language of origin - Greek, Latin or modern. Absolute and near international equivalents of this subgroup retain in different languages of a geographical area the same (or nearly the same) denotative and connotative meaning, the same expressive force and picturesqueness: Heel of Achilles ахіллесова п'ята; sword of Damocles дамоклів меч; to cross/pass the Rubicon перейти Рубікон; the die is cast жереб кинуто; after us the deluge після нас хоч потоп; the fair sex прекрасна стать; tilt at windmills «воювати з вітряками» («донкіхотствувати»); the tree of knowledge дерево пізнання, etc. The use of international idioms is restricted in all languages to belles-lettres, partly to social and political texts and to conversational speech style. These idioms are also occasionally used in didactic style and are practically not used in scientific and technical matter texts. A separate subgroup of genuine internationalisms constitute proverbs, sayings and set expressions which are used in their foreign/original lingual form (they are predominantly of Latin, French, English, German origin). Due to centuries long usage they have become regular mots often referred to as barbarisms: sine qua non неодмінна умова; status in statu держава у державі; repetitio est mater studiorum (Lat.) повторення - мати навчання; sotto voce 130 тихо (впівголоса); finita la commedia (Ital.) настав кінець, крах (справі кінець); da ist der Hund begraben! (Germ.) ось де собака закопаний! O.K., all right (Engl.) усе гаразд; c'est la vie (Fr.) таке життя. The number of these idiomatic/stable word-combinations unlike the fund of genuine internationalisms and translation loans remains practically unchanged. That is mainly because idioms/phraseological expressions penetrate into different languages through scholastic, literary and cultural channels, as a rule. This may be conditioned by some extralingual factors, which may facilitate in some important political situations their spontaneous appearance and penetration into several languages during a short period of time. For the last half a century there have appeared few stable expressions of this kind, e.g.: «the fifth column» (1936, Spain), «Iron Curtain» (1947), «peaceful coexistence» (1950's), «cold war» (1946, USA), «permissive society» (1967, Gr. Br.) and a few others. The structural form of international idioms in most languages is identical or similar. The occasional absence of identity in their structural form is explained by the divergences in the grammatical systems and forms of expression in the source language and in the target language (cf. the heel of Achilles/Achilles' heel ахіллесова п'ята, the Pillars of Hercules/Hercules' Pillars (Herculean Pillars) геркулесові стовпи or стовпи Геркулеса). Identification of International Lexicon Units As has been noted, the units of genuine international lexicon are identified on the basis of their common in different languages lexical meaning and identical or only similar lingual form. Loan internationalisms, on the other hand, are identified mainly on the basis of their common sphere of use, their lexical meaning, functional significance and party - structural form. The identification of genuine or loan internationalisms presents no difficulty so far as the monosemantic language units are concerned. That is explained by the terminological nature of the signs, which are used to signify social, political, scientific, technological, cultural and other notions (cf. parliament, theatre, theory, poet, arithmetic, artillery, botany, phoneme, suffix, theorem, proton, volt, decimal fractions, space probe, management, motor, computer, internet, electricity, etc.). These and many other internationalisms are monosemantic words or word-combinations.which constitute a peculiar layer of lexicon in quite different languages. They are characterized by a similarity of their lexical meaning, by an identity or similarity 131 in their orphographic and sounding form, by their denotative meaning and sometimes by their motivation. The meaning of these and a lot of other international words and phrases/word-groups of the kind does not change in any other contextual environment. Consequently, their nature is constantly monolithic. The identification of the international meaning of some lexemes becomes much more difficult, however, when dealing with polysemantic language signs, which are a common feature in present-day English but less common in Ukrainian. That is because in English a lot of lexemes may often have one and the same lingual form for several notions, which is shown below in the vectorial representation of meanings pertained to the noun conductor: Conductor кондуктор провідник провід громовідвід диригент керівник1 genuine internationalism international loan word international loan word international loan word pseudo-internationalism pseudo-internationalism As can be seen, only one out of six lexemes above has a common lingual form and meaning in English and Ukrainian («кондуктор»). The same vectorial disposition of denotative meanings can be observed in several other polysemantic English words of the kind. Hence, in order to avoid mistakes in translation, one must carefully study the contextual environment of such and the like language signs. Though sometimes the corresponding vectorial meanings of polysemantic words can be identified already at word-combination level. Cf.: a fit of depression/depression fit приступ/припадок депресії: depression of trade занепад/застій у торгівлі; the structure of the sentence структура речення; a multi-storied structure багатоповерхова споруда (будова/будівля). Naturally, not every adjunct (identifying word or word-group) forming a word-combination with a polysemantic word, can discriminate the real nature and meaning of the lexeme. Because of this care should be taken when translating such polysemantic words, which may have under the same lingual form either a genuine or a 1 An illustration of this pseudo-international meaning of the noun conductor can be seen in the following excerpt from The Economist journal (February 28, 1998): A spectacular example of Oxford Health Plans once fastest-growing HMO in America. The conductor Stephen Wiggins was forced to resign as chairman on February 24th. 132 pseudo-international, e.i., common, non-international meaning, the latter being realized in a definite context only. A few more examples of such words may be useful: dramatic industry {художній мистецький артистичний театральний драматичний хвилюючий яскравий раптовий непередбачений індустрія промисловість галузь промисловості старанність працьовитість Civil громадський цивільний ввічливий чемний практичний Practical доцільний фактичний революція переворот Revolution < оберт (навколо осі) сівозміна (с/г) кругообіг Apart from the polysemantic words with several meanings, one of which is genuine international and the rest pseudo-international, i.e., non-international as in the examples above, there are also quite a few words in present-day English and Ukrainian which have an identical orthographic form but quite different lexical meaning: accu-rate точний, правильний, влучний but not акуратний: billet ордер на постій, приміщення для постою but not квиток; compositor складач (друк.) but not композитор; data дані but not дата; decade десятиріччя but not декада; decoration нагорода, прикраса but not декорація; Dutch голландський but not данський: fabulist байкар, вигадник but not фабуліст; intelligence розум, кмітливість but not інтелігенція: momentous важливий but not моментальний; matrass колба but not матрац (mattress): obligation зобов'язання but not облігація; potassium калій but not поташ; prospect перспектива but not проспект; production виробництво, випуск but not only продукція: replica точна копія but not репліка; spectre привид but not спектр, etc. As can be ascertained, these English words quite accidentally coincide in their lingual form with some other borrowed words in Ukrainian. Thus, «replica», for example, has quite a different denotative meaning in Ukrainian than our репліка (cue, remark). So is the deno- 133 tative meaning of many other words, whose number by far exceeds that on the above-given list. These and the like pseudo-international words are often referred to as «false friends of the translator» (удавані друзі перекладача). Unlike common lexical units, whose orthographic and sounding forms never coincide in the target language and in the source language, the lingual form of genuine international lexemes in all languages is always either identical or similar. It does not mean that the structural form of genuine internationalisms is necessarily always transplanted to the target language as it is observed in simple lexemes like drama, poet, opera, suffix, lord, kimono, sari, kiwi, motor, proton (драма, поет, опера, суфікс, лорд, кімоно, сарі, etc.). More often the same genuine international lexemes in English and Ukrainian may have a different morphological structure. In Ukrainian they usually take derivational and often also inflexional affixes which is rarely observed in present-day English. As a result, most of genuine international words in Ukrainian are structurally more complicated than in English (cf. apathy-апат/я, dietic-дієтичний, form -форма, exploit - експлуатувати, economic-економічний), etc. Some genuine international words, however, may be structurally more complicated in English than in Ukrainian: Cf.: Greek: analysis аналіз, diagnosis діагноз, sclerosis склероз, academician академік, geographer географ, mathematician математик, philosopher філософ, geologist геолог; Latin: appendicitis апендицит, tuberculosis туберкульоз, rheumatismus ревматизм, etc. Hence, the structural models according to which different logico-grammatical classes of internationalisms are adopted in English and in Ukrainian mostly differ. On this ground relevant for the identification, as well as for the translation of any international word, remains its root morpheme, i.e., its sense bearing seme. Taking this into account, lexemes like anti-trade, arch-enemy, inventor consisting of international affixes and having common root morphemes are to be treated as non-internationalisms, i.e., as pseudo-internationalisms. The international nature/status of a source language lexeme is considered to be fully retained, when the root morpheme or at least the sense and lingual form (part of it) can be rendered in the target language. Consequently, the compounds consisting of a genuine international and a common root morpheme as school-male, coal-gas, washing-тасш'пе. etc. are to be defined in English as partly international, i.e., mixed-type lexical units. Similarly in Ukrainian: Газосховище, радіохвилі, водно-спиртовий. 134 |
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